Eisenhower's methods. As President, Eisenhower delegated wide powers to aides. "This idea that all wisdom is in the President, in me, that's baloney," he said. Eisenhower made each Cabinet officer and White House assistant responsible for an area of government affairs. He chose officials for their managerial ability and strong convictions.
Shortly after Eisenhower took office, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now the Department of Health and Human Services) was created. Oveta Culp Hobby became the first secretary of the department. Her appointment raised the number of Cabinet members to 10.
"Modern Republicanism" was Eisenhower's term for his legislative program. In domestic affairs, he asked for a reduction in government spending and for better federal management policies. In foreign policy, he emphasized close cooperation with the nation's allies.
In working with Congress, Eisenhower used his personal influence only for a few programs he thought essential. He was often unable to rely on the Republicans in Congress to get legislation passed because they were divided on many issues. He therefore depended on the leadership of the Democratic opposition.
By 1956, the federal government's revenues exceeded its expenses, and a small surplus appeared in the U.S. Treasury. Eisenhower's emphasis on economy also led to a reorganization of the armed forces. The "new look" involved fewer conventional forces but more nuclear weapons. Congress passed several other major fiscal reforms. It gave the nation's tax system a thorough overhaul, broadened the social security system, and increased the minimum wage to $1 an hour.
Despite his desire to cut costs, Eisenhower approved several multibillion-dollar public works programs that he believed would strengthen the economy. One was the St. Lawrence Seaway, a waterway that opened the Great Lakes to ocean ships. It was begun in 1954 and completed in 1959. Another was the interstate highway system, begun in 1956. A proposal to build a dam on the Colorado River drew wide criticism and was rejected.
Challenges from the Old Guard occupied much of the President's attention. One of the most troublesome of these conservative Republicans was Senator Joseph R. McCarthy of Wisconsin, who headed a subcommittee looking for Communists in the government. He had gained national attention in 1950 by charging--with no evidence--that there were Communist spies in the State Department and the Army.
McCarthy also attempted to ban books he considered to be written by Communists. He tried to keep such books out of the State Department libraries in many countries. In a June 1953 speech at Dartmouth College, Eisenhower urged his young audience, "Don't join the book burners." But Eisenhower refused to publicly criticize McCarthy, claiming it was beneath the dignity of the presidency to do so. He explained that he would not "get into the gutter with that guy." As Eisenhower expected, the Senate soon curbed McCarthy. It condemned him in December 1954 for conduct unbecoming a senator. McCarthy's influence quickly declined.
Another Old Guard member challenging the President was Senator John W. Bricker of Ohio. In January 1953, Bricker proposed a constitutional amendment that would require Senate consent for international agreements made by the President. Eisenhower opposed any measure that would reduce the President's power to conduct foreign policy, and his supporters defeated the amendment.
The Republican Party lost control of both houses of Congress in the midterm election of 1954. For the rest of his presidency, Eisenhower had to work with a Democratic-controlled Congress. This situation made it difficult to win support for his programs.
Civil rights. The President favored a deliberate, orderly end to racial discrimination against black Americans. But in September 1957, a crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas, wrecked his hopes of proceeding slowly in a push for school integration. Governor Orval E. Faubus of Arkansas defied a federal court order to integrate Little Rock Central High School. Faubus used the Arkansas National Guard to prevent black students from entering the school. Eisenhower then placed the National Guard under federal control and sent a regular Army unit, the 101st Airborne Division, to enforce the court order and protect the black students. In a televised address, Eisenhower explained that he had acted in order to prevent further civil disorder.
The space age began on Oct. 4, 1957, when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. On Nov. 3, 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, a larger satellite that carried a dog as a passenger.
Americans were shocked that the Soviets had beaten the United States in technology, the area of its greatest pride. Many Americans also feared that the Soviet Union might have long-range missiles powerful enough to hit North America. In response, Eisenhower supported two expensive projects that went against his cost-cutting beliefs. One was an all-out effort to quickly catch up to the Soviets in space technology. The other project was to provide federal assistance to schools in support of science education.
The new space program got off to a fast start. On Jan. 31, 1958, the first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1, went into orbit.
Contributor: Elmo R. Richardson, Ph.D., Public Historian, Historians' Services of the Northwest.